^[1] Horatius Bonar, “The Jew,” in The Quarterly Journal of Prophecy, ed. Horatius Bonar, vol. 22 (London, UK: J. Nisbet, 1870), 209–19. Also available here: http://bunyanministries.org/books/israel_and_millennialism/19_app_i_the_jew_bonar.pdf.

^[2] Abraham Joshua Heschel, “To Be a Jew: What Is It?,” in Moral Grandeur and Spiritual Audacity, ed. Susannah Heschel (New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997), Kindle, chap. 1, sec. 1.

^[3] In this article, we follow the convention of using the term “antisemitism” rather than “anti-Semitism.” Jewish publication authorities differ on whether there should be a hyphen or not. We follow the trend in modern scholarship of dropping the hyphen, on the basis that there is no such thing as “Semitism” that can be opposed.

^[4] Yaakov Wolbe, “A History of Christian Antisemitism Part 1,” The Jewish History Podcast, Mar. 22, 2017, https://www.stitcher.com/show/the-jewish-history-podcast-with-rabbi-yaakov-wolbe/episode/ep-25-a-history-of-christian-anti-semitism-part-1-51923899.

^[5] Yaakov Wolbe, “A History of Christian Antisemitism Part 1,” The Jewish History Podcast, Mar. 22, 2017, 11:20, https://www.stitcher.com/show/the-jewish-history-podcast-with-rabbi-yaakov-wolbe/episode/ep-25-a-history-of-christian-anti-semitism-part-1-51923899.

^[6] I.e. the Barcelona Disputation, the Tortosa Disputation, etc. For a survey of Christian-Jewish dialogues, see A. Lukyn Williams, Adversus Judaeos: A Bird’s-Eye View of Christian Apologiae until the Renaissance (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

^[7] Jewish-Christian pastor Bernard Howard has written to a Gentile Christian audience to dispel the possible hero-worship of Martin Luther for the 500^th year anniversary of the Reformation in 2017. Bernard N. Howard, “Luther’s Jewish Problem,” The Gospel Coalition, last modified October 18, 2017, accessed April 7, 2022, https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/luthers-jewish-problem/.

^[8] Consider two books written by Catholic historians who want to call Catholics to repent of their legacy of antisemitism: James Carroll, Constantine’s Sword: The Church and the Jews (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 2001); Paul Johnson, A History of the Jews (New York, NY: Harper Perennial, 1988).

^[9] Thankfully, many Christians have been repenting of their Jew-hatred, and today, evangelical Christians are consistently Israel’s strongest supporters outside the Jewish community.

^[10] The rabbi is polite here in not explicitly naming Christians, but Esau/Edom is the nickname given to Christians in Talmudic works, so the statement is referring to Christian hatred of Jews.

^[11] A representative example of this would be Corrie ten Boom, a Dutch Christian woman who risked her life to save Jews because of her faith, not in spite of it. Ten Boom and her family hid Jews in a hidden room in their home and were eventually arrested by the Nazis and sent to concentration camps. She lost her family members in the camps, but she survived. She was a tireless advocate for the Jewish people for decades after her release, speaking in churches around the globe. She was honored by Israel as Righteous among the Nations.

^[12] Harvey Belovski, “Anti-Semitism: The Longest Hatred,” Jewish Action, last modified March 9, 2015, accessed April 7, 2022, https://jewishaction.com/religion/jewish-thought/anti-semitism-longest-hatred/.

^[13] Terence L. Donaldson, Jews and Anti-Judaism in the New Testament: Decision Points and Divergent Interpretations (London; Waco, TX: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge; Baylor University Press, 2010), 20.

^[14] The theology about the person and nature of “the Christ”—ie, the Messiah. Both sides have a Christology. The Christology of traditional Judaism (if you will forgive the term) denies the divinity of the Messiah.

^[15] However, even this must be given some qualification to fit with the biblical text. A person’s hatred of others is most likely a sin because there is significant ambiguity concerning when hatred of others is justified in Scripture. There are times where God encourages individual Israelites to take action—even violent action—against those with rival ideas. This stems from God’s hatred of sinners (Psa. 11:5). David sees his own hatred of God’s enemies as a virtue (Psa. 139:21–22). It is a mitzvah to destroy the seven nations (Deut. 20:17). God approved of Elijah executing the false priests of Ba’al (1 Kings 18:40). But it would not be wise to assume that those of us alive today have the same prophetic authority as the prophets of Scripture. What if we hate people whom God has not authorized us to hate? It would be a sin when one presumes that God wants him to hate and persecute someone when in fact God has approved of no such thing—one’s hatred is one’s own. And of course, when we come to the teachings of Yeshua, he teaches an ethic of love extending even to one’s enemies (Matt. 5:44), the Samaritans (Luke 10:25-37), tax-collectors (Matt. 11:19), adulteresses (John 8), and sinners (Matt. 9:11). He gives an example of patience, love, and non-coercion against religious opponents. While it may be a virtue to hate those who hate God, it is an even higher virtue to love those who hate God, so they may be redeemed. This is what Yeshua has done for us: while we were enemies of God and sinners, Messiah died for us (Romans 5:8).

^[16] Some modern scholars see a difference between antisemitism (race-based opposition to Jews that emerged in the nineteenth century) and anti-Judaism (practice- and idea-based opposition that thrived in Christendom in much earlier times). This may be a helpful distinction, but in practice the felt effects upon Jewish people are often the same under both: stereotypes, personal hostility, social distancing, coercion, and violence. Thus, in this article, we are retaining the more commonly known word, antisemitism, and defining it with a broad meaning that includes both race-based and ideological opposition that results in hatred and coercion. This kind of wider definition is employed by the Anti-Defamation League, which defines antisemitism as “the belief or behavior hostile toward Jews just because they are Jewish. It may take the form of religious teachings that proclaim the inferiority of Jews, for instance, or political efforts to isolate, oppress, or otherwise injure them. It may also include prejudiced or stereotyped views about Jews.” For a helpful discussion on how to apply “antisemitism” and “anti-Judaism” to conversations about the New Testament, see Donaldson, Jews and Anti-Judaism in the New Testament, 13–20.

^[17] Anthony Kenny, An Illustrated Brief History of Western Philosophy, 3rd edition. (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2018), 263.

^[18] Barry E. Horner, Future Israel: Why Christian Anti-Judaism Must Be Challenged, NAC Series in Bible & Theology (Nashville, TN: B&H Publishing Group, 2007), xix.

^[19] Romans 11:28–29 (ESV) “As regards the gospel, they are enemies for your sake. But as regards election, they are beloved for the sake of their forefathers. For the gifts and the calling of God are irrevocable.”

^[20] Premillennialism is the name for the view that Jesus will return to earth before a 1000-year golden age. This was the earliest eschatological position in Christianity, because it stems from Judaism: in Judaism, the Messiah comes to earth before the Messianic era. Christians who are premillennialists often expect the restoration of the Jewish people during this golden era. An early example of this pro-Jewish hope is found in Justin Martyr, who lived in the mid-second century (Dialogue with Trypho 80). Beautiful nineteenth century examples of the denial of T1 are found in Horatius Bonar and William Blackstone. However, the most explicit repudiation of T1 comes from dispensationalism, a subset of premillennialism that denies that Israel and the church are the same thing. Chosen People Ministries and our associated seminary, Talbot Theological Seminary, have dispensational roots. This is a large reason why we affirm the chosenness of the Jewish people in our organization’s very name!

^[21] John 4:22: “Salvation is from the Jews.” Romans 3:1–2a: “Then what advantage has the Jew? Or what is the value of circumcision? Much in every way.” Romans 9:4–5: “They are Israelites, and to them belong the adoption, the glory, the covenants, the giving of the law, the worship, and the promises. To them belong the patriarchs, and from their race, according to the flesh, is the Christ, who is God over all, blessed forever. Amen.”

^[22] See especially Oskar Skarsaune and Reidar Hvalvik, eds., Jewish Believers in Jesus: The Early Centuries (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2007). In a chapter from that volume, Sten Hidal writes, “In the Greek speaking church and still more in the Western part of the Empire the Jewish heritage in the church gradually disappeared, as did knowledge of Hebrew. Justin Martyr is still acutely aware of Christianity’s Jewish roots, as is Origen, but later on the Jews mainly figure in the deplorable genre known as Adversus Iudaeos. The Old Testament of course is read, preached over, and commented upon, but contemporary Judaism tends to fade away or is reduced to a mere target of Christian hostility. East of Antioch this was not possible. The Jewish community was strong and the imperial decisions against the Jews were not always carried out with full efficiency. In Persia the Jews as a rule were favored over against the Christians. The majority view is that the Christian church in Syria has a Jewish background.” Sten Hidal, “Evidence for Jewish Believers in the Syriac Fathers,” in Jewish Believers in Jesus: The Early Centuries, ed. Oskar Skarsaune and Reidar Hvalvik (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2007), 579.

^[23] Romans 11, Matthew 23:39, Acts 3:21

^[24] Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 80. Tertullian, On the Resurrection of the Flesh 30, On Modesty 8, which states, “It will be fitting for the Christian to rejoice, and not to grieve, at the restoration of Israel, if it be true, (as it is), that the whole of our hope is intimately united with the remaining expectation of Israel.” Origen, Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, Romans 11:12. Theologian Michael Vlach cites many theologians through the twelfth century who expected a reversal of God’s judgment on Israel: Hilary, Ambrose, Chrysostom, Jerome, Cyril of Alexandria, Prosper of Aquitaine, Cassiodorus, Preniasius, Gregory the Great, Isidore, Bede, Anselm, Damian, and Bernard. Michael J Vlach, Has the Church Replaced Israel?: A Theological Evaluation (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2010), 42–50.

^[25] Tertullian and Lactantius are primary examples. These will be discussed further below.

^[26] After the European Wars of Religion in the sixteenth century, Christian thinkers started recovering the ancient Christian value of “tolerance,” especially in Great Britain and the Americas. This idea clearly did not take root in Protestant Germany.

^[27] See the recommended works at the bottom of this article. Especially recommended (but written towards a Christian audience) are Brown, Vlach, and Horner.

^[28] See the recommended works at the bottom of this article. Pre-Holocaust authors include Parkes, Bonar, Spurgeon, and Blackstone.

^[29] Vlach, Has the Church Replaced Israel?, 28–29.

^[30] James William Parkes, The Conflict of the Church and the Synagogue (New York, NY: Atheneum, 1964), 156–57.

^[31] With that said, we believe that a Christian who holds to T1–T3, yet refrains from acting on his beliefs, may be innocent of wrongdoing in a human court, but will be found as morally deficient before the God who reads hearts and intentions before actions are ever committed.

^[32] Jewish Telegraphic Agency, “Billy Graham Voices Staunch Support for Israel, Concern for State’s Security,” Daily News Bulletin, December 26, 1967, accessed April 7, 2022, http://pdfs.jta.org/1967/1967-12-26_248.pdf.

^[33] Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 4.5.3, lists the names of the Jerusalem bishops, most having particularly Jewish names: “Since the bishops of the circumcision ceased at this time [135 CE], it might be necessary now to list these from the first. The first, then, was James who was called the brother of the Lord; and after him was the second, Symeon; the third, Justus, the fourth, Zacchaeus; the fifth, Tobias; the sixth, Benjamin; the seventh, John; the eighth, Matthias; the ninth, Philip; the tenth, Seneca; the eleventh, Justus; the twelfth, Leir; the thirteenth, Ephres; the fourteenth, Joseph; and last of all, the fifteenth, Judas. This many were the bishops in the city of Jerusalem from the Apostles to the time indicated, all of them belonging to the circumcision.”

Eusebius of Caesarea, Ecclesiastical History, Books 1–5, trans. Roy Joseph Deferrari, vol. 19, Fathers of the Church (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1953), 211–12.

^[34] Supporters of this position were known as “Quartodecimans,” literally, “The Fourteeners” (of Nisan). When Gentile Christians became increasingly alienated from Jews and from the Hebrew calendar (second to third centuries), church leaders pushed to change the date to the Roman solar calendar, severing any link to Judaism. As is common in this discussion, the churches of the East (Asia Minor and Syria) were the last to succumb to this pressure, due to the Jewish believers in their ranks and their ancient connection with the Jewish apostles’ practice of celebrating Passover on the fourteenth. See Alistair Stewart-Sykes, “Quartodecimans,” ed. Angelo Di Berardino and James Hoover, trans. Joseph T. Papa, Erik A. Koenke, and Eric E. Hewett, Encyclopedia of Ancient Christianity (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2014); John Behr, ed., On Pascha: With the Fragments of Melito and Other Material Related to the Quartodecimans Melito of Sardis (Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 2001).

^[35] See Torleif Elgvin, “Jewish Christian Editing of the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha,” in Jewish Believers in Jesus: The Early Centuries, ed. Oskar Skarsaune and Reidar Hvalvik (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2007), 278–304.

^[36] The earliest Christians were literalists who used the p’shat to interpret biblical prophecy, often reaching the same conclusions as their Jewish counterparts both before and after them. This is most evident in the premillennialism that was dominant in both Western and Eastern churches until the third century, when it began a period of decline. One of the quickest ways opponents of premillennialism could embarrass adherents was by tarnishing premillennialism as too “Jewish.” Adherents of this Jewish approach to Scripture included Clement of Rome (1 Clement 23:4–5), Epistle of Barnabas 15:3–5, Papias (in Irenaeus, Against Heresies 5.33.3-4 and in Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3.39 and in Jerome, Lives of Illustrious Men), Justin Martyr (Dialogue 14, 80–81), Irenaeus (Against Heresies 5.30.4, 5.32.1, 5.35), Tertullian (Against Marcion 3.24), Hippolytus of Rome (Antichrist 6), Lactantius (Epitome 72, Institutes 7.22, 7.24), and others.

^[37] See Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 4.5.

^[38] Didascalia Apostolorum, XXI

^[39] Apostolic Constitutions 5.17, Dialogue with Trypho 137

^[40] See the Pseudo-Clementine literature, especially Recognitions 1, 27–71, and the interpolations within the Pseudepigrapha. When considering the evidence that early Jewish-Christians edited the Pseudepigrapha (originating from Jewish communities from second century CE and before), Professor of Jewish and Biblical Studies Torleif Elgvin highlights how Jewish-Christian editors may be identified: “(a) a positive view of the people of Israel, (b) an ecclesiology in which Jews are an integral and necessary part of the church (i.e., no ultimate division between the church and Israel is envisioned), (c) an eschatology with a significant role for Israel, and (d) a positive view of the Torah, which portrays Jesus as obedient to the Torah and sees Jewish Torah observance as positive both in the present and the eschaton [World to Come].” Elgvin, “Jewish Christian Editing of the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha,” 280.

^[41] See Skarsaune and Hvalvik, Jewish Believers in Jesus; Ray A. Pritz, Nazarene Jewish Christianity: From the End of the New Testament Period Until Its Disappearance in the Fourth Century (Jerusalem, Israel: Brill Academic, 1988).

^[42] Parkes, The Conflict of the Church and the Synagogue, 92.

^[43] See book recommendations at the bottom of this article.

^[44] For example, Chrysostom’s attacks on Christians in his church in Constantinople reflect a significant amount of overlap between the Christian and Jewish communities in the mid-fourth century. Chrysostom was angry that Christians were attending synagogue services, eating matzah, and doing other things commonly associated with Judaism. This illustrates that the Jewish and Christian communities had not yet completely parted in the East at this time.

^[45] In saying this, we do not discount the many persecutions the Jews experienced at the hands of the Romans, from the attacks of 70 and 135 CE, to the torture and death of Rabbi Akiva, to the forced disputations in Roman debate houses. Despite these persecutions, Judaism was a legal religion in the empire.

^[46] Josephus, Wars of the Jews 7.18. Reinach writes, “Judaism, during the entire duration of the Roman empire, remained a recognized religion (“religio licita”).” Theodore Reinach, “Diaspora,” ed. Isidore Singer, The Jewish Encyclopedia (New York, NY: Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1901–1906), 4:564. On the Fiscus Judaicus, see Mekhilta de Rabbi Ishmael, Tractate Bahodesh 1. Paul Foster, “Vespasian, Nerva, Jesus, and the Fiscus Judaicus,” in Israel’s God and Rebecca’s Children: Christology and Community in Early Judaism and Christianity, ed. David B. Capes et al. (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2007), 316.

^[47] There is considerable debate about when the Birkat ha-Minim (Cursing of the Heretics) prayer became a part of synagogue liturgy. It is not our intention to weigh in on that debate. However, there is evidence that some form of prayer was said against believers in Jesus from within synagogues as early as the second century CE. See Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 95–96. See Philip L Mayo, “The Role of the Birkath Haminim in Early Jewish-Christian Relations: A Reexamination of the Evidence,” Bulletin for Biblical Research 16, no. 2 (2006): 325–31.

^[48] Parkes, The Conflict of the Church and Synagogue, 64: “It will be thus seen that at the beginning Judaism had the whip hand of Christianity, in that it was the Jews who decided what a Jew was, and who had the right to be admitted to the privileges they enjoyed. By the simple act of excommunication they could expel a Christian from these privileges and report against him as an atheist. Moreover, so long as the Christians chose to remain—officially, at least—a Jewish sect, they were subject to the discipline of the synagogue.”

^[49] Some examples include John 16:2 (Jews could not legally execute people, so they worked through Rome), Acts 13:50, 18:13–17, and Acts 21—22.

^[50] Justin Martyr stated that Jews of his era sought the death of Christians when it was in their power (Dialogue 95–96, cf. 110, 131, 133). Jews assisted in the burning of Polycarp “as [was] their custom” in Martyrdom of Polycarp 13.1 (cf. 17.2–3). Tertullian said that Jews joined with pagans to call for the death of Christians and that synagogues were “fountains of persecution” (Scorpiace, 10). Eusebius cited an anonymous second-century writer who claimed that one mark of true Christianity was being persecuted by Jews and slain by lawless men (Ecclesiastical History 5.16.12).

^[51] These are two of the most commonly known heretical groups at that time. The sixth-century Code of Justinian gives a more full list of the heretical groups that Theodosius legislated against with his Edict of Thessalonica: “Arians, Macedonians, Pneumatomachi, Apollinarians, Novatians, Sabbatians, Eunomians, Tetradites or Tessarescaedecatites, Valentinians, Papianists, Montanists, Priscillianists, Phrygians, Pepuzites, Marcianists, Borborians, Messalians, Eutychites, Enthusiasts, Donatists, Audians, Hydroparastates, Batrachites, Tascodrogites, Hermeiecians, Photinians, Paulians, Marcillians, Ophites, Encratites, Apotactites, Saccophorians, and the perfectly appalling Manichees.” One cannot help but chuckle at the final phrase. Codex Justinianus, I, 5, 5, as quoted in Parkes, The Conflict of the Church and Synagogue, 194.

^[52] John Acton, “Acton-Creighton Correspondence, Letter I,” April 5, 1887, https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/acton-acton-creighton-correspondence.

^[53] Armenian King Tiridates III converted to Christianity, proclaimed it the religion of his kingdom, and baptized more than 4 million of his citizens. Mark Cartwright, “The Early Christianization of Armenia,” World History Encyclopedia, March 22, 2018, accessed April 7, 2022, https://www.worldhistory.org/article/801/the-early-christianization-of-armenia/.

^[54] See the decree of Caesar in Josephus, Antiquities 13.199. See also Herman Rosenthal, “Caius Julius Caesar,” in The Jewish Encyclopedia, 3:483–85.

^[55] Hippolytus, Apostolic Tradition 16. Hippolytus of Rome, On the Apostolic Tradition, ed. John Behr, trans. Alistair Stewart-Sykes, Popular Patristics Series 22 (Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 2001), 100.

^[56] See Eberhard Arnold, The Early Christians: In Their Own Words, Revised edition. (Farmington, PA: Plough Publishing House, 1998), 72–73. Arnold quotes from Minucius Felix, Octavius 8.4; 9.1–6; 10.2, in which a pagan opponent of Christianity, Caecilius Natalis, gives the following corrupted description of Christian practices and beliefs, of which he seems to have no real acquaintance: “They form a rabble of profane conspiracy. Their alliance consists in meetings at night with solemn rituals and inhuman revelries. They replace holy rites with inexpiable crimes…. Just like a rank growth of weeds, the abominable haunts where this impious confederacy meet are multiplying all over the world, due to the daily increase of immorality. Root and branch, it should at all costs be exterminated and accursed. They recognize each other by secret signs and symbols. They love one another before being acquainted, so to speak. Everywhere they practice a kind of religious cult of lust, calling one another ‘brother’ and ‘sister’ indiscriminately…. To venerate an executed criminal and the gallows, the wooden cross on which he was executed, is to erect altars which befit lost and depraved wretches. The blood of the infant—oh, how abominable—they lap up greedily, they distribute its limbs with passionate eagerness. Their feastings are notorious…. Why do they not speak in public? Why do they never meet in the open? Is it not simply because what they worship and conceal is criminal and shameful?”

^[57] Tacitus, Annals 15.44

^[58] This is a representative quote from the Edict as found in Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 10.5.2: “Authority is to be refused no one at all to follow and to choose the observance or the form of worship of the Christians, and that authority be given to each one to devote his mind to that form of worship which he himself considers to be adapted to himself, in order that the Deity may be able in all things to provide for us His accustomed care and goodness.” Eusebius of Caesarea, Ecclesiastical History, Books 6–10, trans. Roy J. Deferrari, Fathers of the Church 29 (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1955), 269.

^[59] See Eusebius Ecclesiastical History 10.5–7.

^[60] Eusebius of Caesaria, “The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine,” in Eusebius: Church History, Life of Constantine the Great, and Oration in Praise of Constantine, ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, trans. Ernest Cushing Richardson, vol. 1, A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series (New York: Christian Literature Company, 1890), 481.

^[61] Os Guinness, The Case for Civility: And Why Our Future Depends on It (New York, NY: HarperOne, 2008), 20.

^[62] David Berger, Persecution, Polemic, and Dialogue: Essays in Jewish-Christian Relations (Boston, MA: Academic Studies Press, 2010), 376.

^[63] Philip Yancey, “The Lure of Theocracy,” Christianity Today, July 1, 2006, accessed April 7, 2022, https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2006/july/24.64.html.

^[64] “You who believe! Fight those of the disbelievers who are close to you, and let them find sternness in you, and know that God is with the ones who guard (themselves).” (Quran 9:123). “You who believe! Do not take the Jews and the Christians as allies. They are allies of each other. Whoever of you takes them as allies is already one of them.” (Quran 5:51). “Fight those who do not believe in God or the Last Day… until they pay tribute out of hand, and they are disgraced.” (Quran 9:29). “Muḥammad is the messenger of God. Those who are with him are harsh against the disbelievers, (but) compassionate among themselves.” (Quran 48:29). “I shall cast dread into the hearts of those who disbelieve. So strike above (their) necks, and strike (off) all their fingers!’ That was because they broke with God and His messenger, and whoever breaks with God and His messenger—surely God is harsh in retribution. ¹⁴ ‘That is for you! So taste it! And (know) that the punishment of the Fire is for the disbelievers.’” (Quran 8:12–14). Translations from Gordon D. Nickel, ed., The Quran with Christian Commentary: A Guide to Understanding the Scripture of Islam, trans. A.J. Droge (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2020).

^[65] Matthew J. Streett, Here Comes the Judge: Violent Pacifism in the Book of Revelation, Library of New Testament studies (New York, NY: T&T Clark, 2012).

^[66] For example, 2 Clement 13:4, Epistle to Diognetus 6.6, Polycarp to Philippians 3.3, Dialogue with Trypho 96, Apostolic Constitutions 1.2

^[67] Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, 142

^[68] Irenaeus, Against Heresies, 4.37.1, 4.37.3, 4.39.3, 5.1.1; Clement of Alexandria, Quis Dives Salvetur, 10.2, 21.2. The premise of this argument is debatable, in light of biblical examples like the Damascus Road experience of Paul (Acts 9) and God directing the Assyrians in Isaiah 10:5–7.

^[69] Tertullian, To Scapula 2, in Tertullian, Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, The Ante-Nicene Fathers 3 (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 105.

^[70] Tertullian, Apology 24, in Tertullian, Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian, 39.

^[71] To Scapula 2, Tertullian, Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian, 106. Also see Apology, 28: “But as it was easily seen to be unjust to compel freemen against their will to offer sacrifice (for even in other acts of religious service a willing mind is required), it should be counted quite absurd for one man to compel another to do honour to the gods, when he ought ever voluntarily, and in the sense of his own need, to seek their favour, lest in the liberty which is his right he should be ready to say, ‘I want none of Jupiter’s favours; pray who art thou? Let Janus meet me with angry looks, with whichever of his faces he likes; what have you to do with me?’ You have been led, no doubt, by these same evil spirits to compel us to offer sacrifice for the well-being of the emperor; and you are under a necessity of using force, just as we are under an obligation to face the dangers of it.” Tertullian, Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian, 41.

^[72] Clement of Alexandria, “Fragments of Clemens Alexandrinus,” in Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, eds., Fathers of the Second Century: Hermas, Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and Clement of Alexandria, trans. William Wilson, The Ante-Nicene Fathers 2 (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 581.

^[73] Cyprian, On the Advantage of Patience 16. David W. Bercot, ed., “Nonresistance,” A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs: A Reference Guide to More Than 700 Topics Discussed by the Early Church Fathers (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., July 1, 1998), 475.

^[74] Commodianus, Instructions 48. David W. Bercot, “Nonresistance,” 475.

^[75] Contra Celsus 8.41. Origen, “Origen against Celsus,” in Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, eds., Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second, trans. Frederick Crombie, The Ante-Nicene Fathers 4 (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 654.

^[76] Lactantius, The Divine Institutes, in Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, eds., Fathers of the Third and Fourth Centuries: Lactantius, Venantius, Asterius, Victorinus, Dionysius, Apostolic Teaching and Constitutions, Homily, and Liturgies, trans. William Fletcher, The Ante-Nicene Fathers 7 (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1886), 156.

^[77] The Divine Institutes 5.20

^[78] The Divine Institutes 5.21

^[79] Greek text: Charles Joseph Hefele, A History of the Councils of the Church, vol. 1 (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1871), 163. English translation: Ken Pennington, “The Council of Elvira, ca. 306,” accessed April 7, 2022, http://legalhistorysources.com/Canon%20Law/ElviraCanons.htm.

^[80] J. Mitchell Jr., “Pacifism,” ed. Walter A. Elwell, Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1996), 879.

^[81] Once followers of Jesus rise to political power, it is legitimate to wield the force of law and conduct just war for the preservation of good. However, this must be done through official legal and political channels, and not for the purpose of religious coercion.

^[82] Augustine, Letter 93.5.19. Augustine of Hippo, “Letters of St. Augustin,” in St. Augustine, The Confessions and Letters of St. Augustin with a Sketch of His Life and Work, ed. Philip Schaff, A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church 1 (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1886), 389.

^[83] Thomas Pink, “Conscience and Coercion,” ed. R.R. Reno, First Things, no. 225 (August 2012): 47, https://www.firstthings.com/article/2012/08/conscience-and-coercion.

^[84] Augustine of Hippo, Letter 93.5.17. “Letters of St. Augustin,” in St. Augustine, The Confessions and Letters of St. Augustin with a Sketch of His Life and Work, 388.

^[85] When the kingdom of Armenia adopted Christianity in 302, several million Armenians were baptized, but it is unknown to what extent these baptisms were forced.

^[86] Augustine of Hippo, Letter 93.2.6.

^[87] Garrett J. DeWeese and J. P. Moreland, Philosophy Made Slightly Less Difficult: A Beginner’s Guide to Life’s Big Questions, 2nd ed. (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2021), 92–95.

^[88] See Ambrose, Letter 40.

^[89] See Augustine, De Fide 6.9, Sermon 201.3, and Against the Jews 9.

^[90] Parkes, The Conflict of the Church and Synagogue, 184.

^[91] DeWeese and Moreland, Philosophy Made Slightly Less Difficult, 95–100.

^[92] For example, Catholic philosopher Thomas Pink wrote in First Things in 2012, “The Church has jurisdiction over the baptized, who have an obligation of fidelity to the Church, to believe her doctrine and to obey her laws, including a duty to assist her mission when she requests it. And, according to traditional doctrine, the Church has the right and authority to enforce this jurisdiction coercively, with temporal or earthly penalties as well as spiritual ones. The Church has no right to punish unbelief among the unbaptized, who are outside her jurisdiction and have no obligation of fidelity to the Church. But the Church still has the authority to use coercion to defend her jurisdiction against those unbaptized who interfere from without, proselytizing on behalf of false religions. As for the baptized, who do have obligations of fidelity to her, the Church has the authority to punish culpable unbelief through penalties for heresy, apostasy, and schism. The point of such sanctions is punitively to reform heretics, apostates, or schismatics, or at least to discourage others from sharing their errors.” Pink, “Conscience and Coercion,” 47.

^[93] Michael L. Brown, Answering Jewish Objections to Jesus: General and Historical Objections., vol. 1 (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2000), 133.